1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives of This Book
1.2 What Is Terrorism?
1.3 What Does "Child" Mean?
1.3.1 Childhood as a Social Construct
1.3.2 "Child" in Sociocultural Contexts around the World
1.4 Child Terrorism
1.4.1 Child Terrorists vs. Child Soldiers?
1.4.2 Always Aware of Being a Child Terrorist?
1.5 Competitive Works
1.6 Summary of Chapters
1.7 References
2 Reasons for Child Terrorism
2.1 State Failure
2.1.1 Effects of Precarious Circumstances
2.1.2 Poverty Always Causing Terrorism?
2.2 Cultural Arena
2.2.1 Case Study: Pakistan
2.2.2 Social Learning Theory
2.2.3 Cultural Evolution (CE) Theory
2.3 Social Media Influences
2.3.1 Terrorist Communication
2.3.2 Blurring the Virtual and Real Worlds
2.3.3 Frustration with Modernity
2.4 Total Institution
2.4.1 Radicalization
2.4.2 Case Study: The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
2.4.3 Performance Theory
2.4.4 Rituals
2.5 Kinship Factors
2.5.1 Case Study: ISIS
2.5.2 Case Study: White Supremacists
2.5.3 Child Terrorists and Group Identity
2.5.4 Case Studies on Jihadist Terrorism
2.5.5 Social Identity Theory (SIT)
2.6 Identity Crises and Psychological Factors
2.6.1 Risk-Taking Behavior
2.6.2 Case Study: The Baader-Meinhof Gang
2.7 Susceptibility and Naïveté
2.8 Kidnapping or Forced Recruitment
2.9 Easy Prey for Suicide Missions
2.9.1 Made, Not Born
2.9.2 Case Study: Palestinian Children
2.10 Gender-Related and Sexual Reasons
2.11 References
3 Child Jihadism
3.1 Introducing Children to Jihad
3.1.1 Hemingway Factor
3.1.2 Case Study: Pakistan
3.2 Al-Qaeda
3.2.1 The bin Ladens: Father and Son
3.2.2 Children at U.S. Detention Centers
3.2.3 Case Study: Omar Khadr
3.2.4 Birds of Paradise
3.3 The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
3.3.1 Recruitment Methods
3.3.2 "Cubs of the Caliphate"
3.3.3 Sister's Role in Jihad
3.3.4 Material Benefits
3.3.5 Indoctrination
3.4 References
4 Child Terrorism in Africa and Latin America
4.1 Human Security Concerns
4.2 Africa's Weapons Problem
4.3 Child Suicide Bombers in Africa
4.3.1 Girl Suicide Bombers
4.3.2 Case Study: Boko Haram in Nigeria
4.4 RENAMO in Mozambique
4.4.1 RENAMO Child Terrorists
4.4.2 Processes of Indoctrination
4.5 The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA)
4.5.1 The LRA's Children
4.5.2 Case Studies: Unknown Girl and Lucy Aol
4.6 The Revolutionary United Front (RUF)
4.6.1 The RUF Children
4.6.2 The RUF's Modus Operandi
4.7 Child Terrorists in Latin America
4.8 Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso)
4.8.1 Recruitment of Children
4.8.2 Total Institution
4.8.3 Popular Schools
4.9 Child Terrorists in Colombia
4.9.1 Child Recruitment
4.9.2 The FARC's Children
4.10 References
5 Child Separatist Terrorism and White Child Supremacism
5.1 The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
5.1.1 Sri Lankan State Repression
5.1.2 Child Tamil Tigers
5.1.3 Total Institution
5.1.4 Child Suicide Bombers
5.2 The Irish Republican Army (IRA)
5.2.1 Children in the Provisional IRA
5.2.2 Case Study: Two IRA Children
5.2.3 The Fianna
5.3 White Supremacism
5.3.1 White Child Supremacism
5.3.2 Online Recruitment
5.3.3 Differences between Racial Groups
5.3.4 Stormfront
5.3.5 The Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
5.4 References
6 From Child Terrorism to Peace Activism: An Overview
6.1 Peace Activism
6.1.1 What Is Peace Activism?
6.1.2 Peace Spaces
6.1.3 Accidental vs. Lifelong Activists
6.1.4 Grassroots Activism
6.2 The World as One
6.2.1 Dialogic Communication
6.2.2 Cultural Wisdom and Empowerment Communication
6.3 Social Movement Theory (SMT)
6.3.1 Social Media
6.3.2 Mediation
6.4 Framing Theory
6.4.1 Mobilizing the Public
6.4.2 Collective Action Frames
6.4.3 Frame Alignment and Narrative Fidelity
6.5 Social Representations Theory (SRT)
6.6 References
7 From Child Terrorism to Peace Activism: Case Studies
7.1 Identification of the 24 Subjects
7.2 Mean Age, Median Age, and Gender
7.3 Former Child Jihadists
7.3.1 Aimen Dean
7.3.2 Khairul Ghazali
7.3.3 Mosab Hassan Yousef
7.3.4 Maajid Nawaz
7.3.5 Yasmin Mulbocus
7.3.6 Mohammed Khalid
7.4 Former African Child Terrorists
7.4.1 Grace Akallo
7.4.2 Junior Nzita Nsuami
7.4.3 Mohamed Sidibay
7.4.4 Ishmael Beah
7.4.5 China Keitetsi
7.5 Former Child Separatist Terrorists
7.5.1 Shane Paul O'Doherty
7.5.2 Henry Robinson
7.5.3 Antonythasan Jesuthasan
7.5.4 Nazir Ahmad Wani
7.5.5 Yussef Bazzi
7.6 Former Child Terrorists in Latin America
7.6.1 Lurgio Gavilán Sánchez
7.6.2 Sara Morales
7.6.3 Yineth Trujillo
7.6.4 Mario Escobar
7.7 Former White Child Supremacists
7.7.1 Angela King
7.7.2 Christian Picciolini
7.7.3 Arno Michaelis
7.7.4 Tony McAleer
7.8 References
8 From Child Terrorism to Peace Activism: A Thematic Analysis
8.1 Making Sense of One's Life Experience
8.2 Research Questions
8.3 Thematic Analysis
8.4 Step 1: Familiarization with the Data
8.5 Step 2: Creation of Codes
8.6 Step 3: Theme Search
8.7 Step 4: Theme Definition
8.7.1 Theme 1: Metamorphosis
8.7.2 Theme 2: Terrorist Behavior
8.7.3 Theme 3: Disillusionment
8.7.4 Theme 4: Anti-Terrorist Behavior
8.8 Step 5: Data Analysis
8.8.1 Analysis of Theme 1: Metamorphosis
8.8.2 Analysis of Theme 2: Terrorist Behavior
8.8.3 Analysis of Theme 3: Disillusionment
8.8.4 Analysis of Theme 4: Anti-Terrorist Behavior
8.9 Step 6: Conclusions
8.10 References
9 Discussion, Theoretical Implications, and Solutions
9.1 On Being Child Terrorists
9.2 On Being Peace Activists
9.3 Theoretical Implications
9.3.1 Social Learning Theory
9.3.2 Cultural Evolution (CE) Theory
9.3.3 Performance Theory
9.3.4 Social Identity Theory (SIT)
9.3.5 Social Movement Theory (SMT)
9.3.6 Framing Theory
9.3.7 Social Representations Theory (SRT)
9.4 Solutions: General Perspectives
9.4.1 Naming and Shaming?
9.4.2 Financial Assistance?
9.5 Solutions: Reintegration Perspectives
9.5.1 Child Terrorists vs. Other Offenders
9.5.2 Age and Attitude
9.5.3 Education and Deradicalization
9.5.4 Two Case Studies
9.5.5 Helping Them though Community Resilience
9.5.6 Preventing Recidivism
9.6 Solutions: Legal Perspectives
9.6.1 Considering International Humanitarian Laws
9.6.2 Prosecuting Adult Trainers Too
9.7 Final Thoughts
9.8 References
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